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In the Bantu languages, verbs often form the centre of a complex web of regular derivational patterns, and words/roots belonging to many parts of speech may be directly or indirectly derived from them. Not only may new verbs be derived using a large number of derivational suffixes, Sesotho nouns (and, iteratively, the other parts of speech that derive from them), some imperative interjectives and, to a lesser extent, ideophones may be formed by simple morphological devices.
Regular verbs are those beginning with a consonant and ending in the vowel . The final may change into every vowel except the near-close back vowel () through inflexion or derivation. The verb root is the atomic part of the verb, which does not change (save for some purely phonetic changes) and Bantu languages share numerous similar verb roots (with predictable sound changes between languages).
Monosyllabic stems may be classified into several categories:
Vowel verb stems are conjugated as regular verbs but are put into a separate class due to being uncommon in Bantu languages (and, in some languages but not in Sesotho, causing changes to concords and other formatives prefixed to them).The specific label comes from early descriptions of isiZulu grammar, where it was discovered that, apart from simply looking different from other verbs, vowel verbs are also conjugated slightly differently from normal verbs under certain situations, and many of them have alternative (and, at least in modern popular urban isiZulu, more common) forms with the initial vowel deleted.
Though isiZulu has five vowel phonemes (plus two allophones), vowel verbs in that language may only begin with the vowels , , and (written 'a', 'o', and 'e' respectively in its orthography). There is no similar restriction in Sesotho.
What the verbal tone system lacks in variety, however, it more than makes up for in complexity. The tones of the syllables of the verbs regularly change under varying grammatical environments, with the high tones being manipulated by "tonal rules", and the tones associated with certain syllables being changed by numerous "tonal melodies."
In the following sections, "polysyllabic" generally means "of more than two syllables."
Verbs are derived primarily through suffixes, some of which are no longer productive ("dead").
The suffix may be either (Proto-Bantu * -u-) (short passive) or (long passive).
The following rules are applied to form the passive:
It is very rare to have other verbs derived from the passive through suffixes.
This suffix has the effect of decreasing the valency of the verb and giving it an agentive import.
In the most formal standard language, the perfect of the passive is generally formed by inserting before the final vowel of the perfect form (that is, the passive suffix has to come after the perfect suffix). In non-standard common speech, however, the perfect of the passive may alternatively be formed by using the long passive with the final vowel changed to the final vowel (usually ) of the verb's perfect. Additionally, in non-standard speech the perfect passive of verbs ending in a that changes to in the passive replace it with .
The passive is used more commonly in Sesotho than the English "passive voice." Consider the following example:
The alternatives are more complex in their respective languages:
Passive verbs are rare in the Niger–Congo family outside the Bantu sub-branch.
The neutro-active indicates an intransitive state without reference to the agent determining the condition. It can be approximated in English by using "get" or "become." It is, however, distinct from the passive. It indicates a current state of being done or being doable.
The suffix is . Only transitive verbs may take this suffix.
This suffix has the effect of making the valency of the verb 0, even if the original verb had two objects. The resultant verb is completely intransitive and cannot assume any objects even if they are prefixed.
The perfect of verbs ending with this suffix is achieved by changing the final to .
This extension is quite rare in the Bantu language family as a whole.
The neutro-passive indicates an intransitive state without reference to the agent determining the condition. It can be approximated in English by the suffix "-able." It is, however, distinct from the passive. It indicates that the verb has the potential of being doable, but not necessarily currently.
The suffix is (Proto-Bantu * -ik-,Proto-Bantu also had an allomorphic non-productive suffix (called the "impositive"), which, instead of meaning "to be put in a state" (the meaning of the neutro-passive), actually meant "to put in a state." As with the productive suffix, the vowel has undergone an irregular vowel shift in Sesotho, but unlike the productive suffix the reflex from Proto-Bantu * k is sometimes weakened (through voicing) and elided, thus resulting in verbs that end with
with an irregular vowel shift). Only transitive verbs may take this suffix.
This suffix has the effect of making the valency of the verb 0, even if the original verb had two objects. The resultant verb is completely intransitive and cannot assume any objects even if they are prefixed.
The past tense of verbs ending with this suffix is formed in the general way by replacing the final vowel with .
The applied indicates an action applied on behalf of or with regard to some object. It can be approximated in English by prepositions and prepositional phrases such as "for" and "towards."It is possible that in pre-Proto-Bantu the various meanings of this suffix where indicated by several different forms that eventually merged and became the single * -id-.
The suffix is (Proto-Bantu * -id-, with an irregular vowel shiftThis "irregular" shift, which causes the applied suffix to look like it came from Proto-Bantu * -ed- instead of * -id-, is found in many other Bantu languages.). Sometimes this extension is doubled to , causing the verb to look like a perfective form but with an applied meaning.
The following rules apply when forming the applied:
The Proto-Bantu short causative * -î- alveolarizes the Sesotho to . Additionally, there were, and (in almost all Bantu languages) still are, fairly strong restrictions on the ordering of the verbal extensions — the most basic restriction being that the short passive and the short causative * -û- always follow the other extensions (isiXhosa is an example of a language that allows other extensions to follow the passive).
So with these facts in mind, this particular morphological rule for forming the applied may be explained by simply saying that the short passive that alveolarized the original is removed from its current position (thus reversing the alveolarization) and placed after the applied extension to conform to the rules about extension ordering (with the added side-effect that the in the applied extension is now alveolarized).The applied increases the valency of verbs; intransitive verbs may become transitive in the applied, and transitive verbs may become doubly transitive
The past tense of verbs ending with this suffix changes the to .
The causative indicates an action caused to happen by some agent. It can be approximated in English by using "cause to."
The suffix is (Proto-Bantu long causative * -îc- + short causative * -î- ⇒ * -îcî-).
The following rules apply when forming the causative. Most complications are caused by the original Proto-Bantu "short causative" * -î- being absorbed into the preceding consonant (Sesotho does not allow palatal glides):
Often the causative verb has a meaning implying "help to do"
The causative may increase the valency of verbs
Usually the perfect is formed by further suffixing , but if the derivation alveolarized an original final to then the alveolarization is reversed, resulting in final . If the suffix changed final to then the perfect is formed by replacing this final syllable with .
The intensive indicates intensity or quickness of action.
The suffix is simply a doubling of the causative suffix () and the first syllable therefore follows similar phonetic rules as the causative. Sometimes, the suffix is used instead, resulting in causative and intensive verbs looking the same.
The perfective indicates an action that has been carried out to completion or perfection.
The suffix is simply a doubling of the applied suffix (). It must therefore not be confused with the applied form of verbs ending in .
A further intensification of meaning is achieved with the suffixes ( + Proto-Bantu * -îa) and ( + Proto-Bantu * -îa), a compounding of intensive and perfective suffixes. These verbs tend to denote meanings indicating specific purpose, and it is not unlikely that they are in fact intensifications of the applied suffix instead (though the verb's valency is not increased).
Though one might expect this suffix to form the perfect by replacing the with , it often appears as instead, even in standard speech.
The reciprocal denotes a reciprocated action.
It is formed by suffixing (Proto-Bantu * -an-Many researchers believe that this suffix might be from an earlier preposition * na (cf. the conjunctive clitic * na-, corresponding to the Sesotho proclitic ), which became grammaticalised and attached to the verb. That is, Verb-a na X ("Verb along with X") became Verb-ana X in pre-Proto-Bantu (with the same meaning) and this was eventually used as a productive suffix.).
It is usually used with plural subjects and plural concords, and has the effect of decreasing the valency. However, an object (the second subject) as well as a singular subject may still be used if the object is prefixed with the conjunctive enclitic (and, with); that is, they have a conjunctive import
Often this suffix is used when there is no chance that two subjects are involved in reciprocating the action. In this case it simply converts the verb from transitive to conjunctive import, with a minor modification of meaning (the action is slightly extended in time, or indicates a habit of the actor)
The perfect is usually formed by changing the final vowel to , though if the original verb was monosyllabic then the perfect replaces the with
The associative indicates that two or more subjects are associated together in the action of the verb.
It is formed by suffixing .
This derivative formation is not regularly used with most verbs.
The perfect simply replaces the final vowel with
The reversive (or inversive) indicates an entire reversal of an action.
It is formed by suffixing (Proto-Bantu * -udud-) although several other dead formations exist, showing two sets of derivations into intransitive, transitive, and causative. These extensions, or at least their short forms as found in other languages (Proto-Bantu intransitive * -uk- and transitive * -ud-), are sometimes called the "separative" instead.
| + Dead reversive forms !Type | Causative |
Though the theory (and standard grammar) would dictate that this suffix forms its perfect by changing to , it often appears as instead, even in standard speech.
The augmentative is a largely dead formation signifying an augmentation or extension of a verb.
It is indicated by suffixes similar to the dead full formation of the reversive (, , and ).
The extensive indicates performing the action repeatedly or extensively.
It is formed with the suffix Comparison with other languages shows that this is actually irregular as one would expect it to appear as in Sesotho. but is limited in scope. It is primarily used with verbs signify discrete actions, causing them to be continuous or habitual. It is also sometimes heard doubled as , with the same meaning.
The perfect of this extension simply suffixes .
The diminutive indicates an action done "a little."
It is indicated by reduplication,The verb thus formed is a full, independent verb, rather than a mere repeating of the verb's syllables. In particular, the derived verb belongs to the same tonal class as the original, with the underlying tone on the first syllable of the stem not copied when the syllable is copied. This is overwhelmingly the case in the Bantu languages, although there is one notable exception, viz. Chichewa. the form being determined by the length of the verb:
Note that this derivation pattern, like all other uses of reduplication in Bantu languages, is also sometimes used to indicate an intensification and/or repetition of an action—in these cases the actual meaning must be determined from context.
After the reduplication, the new verb may only have an underlying high tone on the first syllable (that is, only the phones of the first syllable are repeated, but not its tone).
The positional is a dead stativeThese "stative" verbs in Sesotho all have a strong inceptive feel to them. That is, instead of simply meaning "to be x", they actually mean "to become x", with the actual stative "to be x" meaning achieved by using the "present stative" tense (which is formed in exactly the same manner as the perfect for non-stative verbs). The "stative" label comes from the fact that in many other Bantu languages these verbs do actually indicate present states, not a continuous inceptive event. formation found in many verbs, mostly indicating bodily positions.
It is marked by the suffix (Proto-Bantu * -am-). Originally, this suffix was not used to derive new meanings as such, but rather to emphasise the stative positional nature of the verb.
The perfect of these verbs changes the to and indicates a continuous, current action instead of a completed one. Past tense may be indicated by multi-verbal conjugation.
The stative extensive is a dead stative formation found in a few miscellaneous verbs, united by the fact that they all indicate states.
It is marked by the suffix (Proto-Bantu * -ad-). Originally, this suffix was not used to derive new meanings as such, but rather to emphasise the stative nature of the verb.
The perfect of these verbs changes the to and indicates a continuous, current action instead of a completed one. Past tense may be indicated by multi-verbal conjugation.
The contactive is a dead formation found in a few verbs, all indicating touch or contact of some sort.
It is marked by the suffix (Proto-Bantu * -at-). Originally, this suffix was not used to derive new meanings as such, but rather to emphasise or intensify the contactive nature of the verb.
The perfect of these verbs changes the to and indicates a continuous, current action instead of a completed one. Past tense may be indicated by multi-verbal conjugation.
Though it may appear that the possibilities are endless, the truth is that the depth is limited by various factors. Apart from the obvious constraints of semantics (whether a complex meaning actually makes any sense and serves any possible purpose) and markedness (how strange and complex the verb sounds to the native speaker), there are also restrictions on the order of the extensions.
If an extension increases the valency of a verb, any objects of the original verb are demoted and the new object is made principal.
If an objectival concord is used instead of an object, the concord agrees with what would have been the principal object. Additionally, if the original object was also only indicated by an objectival concord, then it becomes demoted to an absolute pronoun (Sesotho verbs may only have one objectival concord).
Like all other Bantu languages, Sesotho has inherited certain restrictions on the order of the extensions. The most basic rule (which is broken by very few languages) is that the passive and the short causativeSee the note above on the alveolarization of the applied. always follow all the other extensions (including the perfect , which is always used with the final vowel ). Although it is probable that Proto-Bantu had fairly strict restrictions on the order of the other extensions, these rules have been relaxed somewhat in modern Bantu languages.
For example, since the causative is normally ordered closer to the verb stem than the reciprocal (or indeed, most other extensions), to form the causative of the reciprocal the (dead) short causative (Proto-Bantu * -î-) is usually used instead, therefore palatalizing the reciprocal to . Various other unexpected palatalizations and alveolarizations brought on by combinations of the causative with other extensions may be similarly explained by the action of the short causative either replacing the normal causative, or being used together with the long causative around another extension (causative + other extension ⇒ + other extension + * -î- ⇒ + modified extension).
Certain extensions (intensive, perfective, associative, reversive, and augmentative) are obviously fossilised compound extensions. Often a derived verb may continue being used while the original verb disappears from the language.
Note that, since prefixes are of the shape CV or V (where C represents a consonant and V a vowel), verb roots end without the final vowel, prefixes are of the shape (VC)* (* indicates possible repetition) and the final vowel simply has shape V, this and other structures reinforce the open syllable structure of the Bantu languages, and very few languages have broken it.
They are formed by suffixing (dead) or to the stem, giving a verb meaning "become...."
The monosyllabic adjectival roots (except some, and four) become nasalized before assuming the suffix. Furthermore, the vowel of (beautiful) changes to :
Causatives are formed regularly by changing the suffix to . Perfects are formed regularly by changing the suffix to .
This extension (the long ) is quite rare in the Bantu languages, though all languages have a few verbs in this form even if it may no longer be active.
Deideophonic verbs are formed rather irregularly from disyllabic ideophones.
They are miscellaneous in nature and are formed by the addition of several suffixes such as , , , , , , , etc.
However, common across the Bantu language group are the forms for the intransitive, for the transitive, and for the causative. Additionally, the causative of the intransitive may be formed regularly with the suffix , but this is usually not done if the causative form is regularly used.
The general rules for the formation of the perfect are varied due to various mostly phonological interactions with the suffix:In the formation of the perfect of many of the derivational suffixes listed earlier, many of the complications are caused by a process known as "imbrication" where the perfect suffix loses its consonant and the vowel is placed before the previous consonant, thus causing changes to the previous vowel (and to the following consonant). In isiZulu the forms are very predictable, with suffixes of the form aCa generally changing to eCe (aCa + ile ⇒; aiCe ⇒; eCe).
For all verbs, however, the past tense may also be indicated with the simple (past subjunctive) multi-verbal conjugation, although its meaning does diverge somewhat from that of the perfect (especially with stative verbs)
There are two conjugations, the positive and negative, and most tenses have corresponding forms in each. The language recognises four moods: the indicative, the subjunctive, the potential, and the participial sub-mood (infinitives are nouns and imperatives are interjectives). The moods may be divided into tenses according to time (remote past, immediate past, present, immediate future, and remote future) and implication (simple, progressive, and exclusive), which may be further subdivided according to aspect into indefinite, continuous, and perfect.
There are also many often complex compound tenses, indicated by changes in tone and the use of deficient verbs (multi-verbal conjugations).
Import refers to how the object of the verb is indicated.
Verbs can be either:
Many verbs can have more than one import ( (walk) can be locative, instrumental, or conjunctive; (speak) can be intransitive, transitive, instrumental, or conjunctive) and verb derivatives can also change the import of the stem.
Many shades of meaning are achieved by the employment of deficient verbs in multi-verbal conjugations. Many tenses and moods may only be formed in this manner.
| PI — SC — NEG — TM — AM — OC — ROOT — EXT* — FV │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ final vowel │ │ │ │ │ │ │ extensions │ │ │ │ │ │ vb. root │ │ │ │ │ objectival concord │ │ │ │ aspect marker │ │ │ tense marker │ │ negative │ subjectival concord pre-initial morpheme |
In Sesotho, as with most other Bantu languages, this has been modified somewhat, resulting in the following structure ("I shall no longer look on his behalf"):
PI — SC — A1 — A2 — OC — ROOT — EXT* — FV │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ final vowel │ │ │ │ │ │ extensions │ │ │ │ │ vb. root │ │ │ │ objectival concord │ │ │ second verbal auxiliary │ │ first verbal auxiliary │ subjectival concord pre-initial morpheme |
Though indicative tenses form their negatives with the prefix , many other moods and tenses form their negatives with an infix (either or , depending on the specific tense). The verbal auxiliary infixes are used to indicate tense, certain forms of the subjunctive, progressive implication, the potential mood, as well verb focus in the present indicative tense. The verbal infixes always follow the simple infixes, though there are some instances where two simple infixes are used at the same time.
The extensions include suffixes used in verbal derivatives as well as the perfect (which is always followed by the final vowel ).
With the exception of the verb root, each of these formatives is monosyllabic, but in Sesotho some verbal infixes (those that are contractions) and extensions (those that are obvious compoundings of earlier forms) also have more than one syllable.
Additionally, the structure (obj conc. + stem) is often called the "macrostem" in various syntactical and tonal theories.
Many aspects and tenses are indicated by multi-verbal conjugations and, with the exception of the subjectival concord, the root, and the final vowel, most of these formatives are not always necessary. Note that infinitives and imperatives (both of which do not have subjectival concords) may be considered separate parts of speech (Sesotho nouns/gerunds and interjectives). Deficient verbs are never used with objectival concords, and the use of the other formatives with them is also limited.
This structure obviously ignores any possible enclitics that is suffixed.
| + Examples indicating the tenses (positive simple indicative mood) !Tense | Example |
| I know the truth | |
| I knew the truth | |
| I just recently knew the truth | |
| I shall know the truth soon | |
| I shall know the truth |
| + Sesotho moods !Mood () | Negative () |
| I do not know the truth | |
| I may not know the truth | |
| ...while I do/did not know the truth | |
| ...so I may not know the truth | |
| ...who does not know the truth | |
| ...and then I did not know the truth | |
| I do not often/often do not know the truth | |
| To not know the truth | |
| Do not know the truth |
| + Examples indicating the moods (present tense) !Mood | Negative |
| I do not know the truth | |
| I may not know the truth | |
| ...while I do not know the truth | |
| ...so I may not know the truth |
| + Examples indicating implication (indicative mood) !Implication | Example |
| I know the truth | |
| I still know the truth | |
| I now know the truth |
| + Examples indicating aspect (with a multi-verbal indicative past tense) !Aspect | Example |
| I did know | |
| I knew | |
| I had known |
Deficient verbs, being "deficient", are never used alone. Many of them are irregular in form and have irregular inflexions. Monosyllabic deficient verbs are never used with the penultimate that is sometimes used with normal verbs (not to be confused with the indefinite concord).
Many of these verbs seem radical in nature, while others (especially those with complex implications) are obviously derived from certain extant normal verbs (but are used with slightly different meanings). What distinguishes the deficient usage of these normal verbs is the fact that they are followed directly by another verb and affect its meaning (and only the main verb may carry an objectival concord).
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